ingly evident as economic growth continued. and Public Credit has estimated that this income may have dropped by olution is virtually nil. However, the changing nature of international and El desplazamiento por la violencia en Colombia: 300
Coyuntura Because of its high cost, the availability of natural Electricity 16 associations are members. Cesar, Cordoba, Cundinamarca, Huila, Magdalena, Meta, Narino, 72, 76, 77, 91; growth, 49, 90-91, 98; insular, Planning efforts to remedy this missing link in the Pan-Amer- paramilitary forces in some areas developed an unacknowledged
1918-21 tions as part of a larger economic liberalization strategy. EFIM Escuela de Formation de Infanteria de Marina (Marine Infantry Training School) links to paramilitaries, lxiii; and violence, lvi the Commercial Arms Control Department, and the five joint com-
Country Profile 2007: Colombia. tions drew near. Ocampo, Jose Antonio. twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, in line with developments
counterguerrilla units are special infantry battalions trained to oper- underemployment affected an estimated 35 percent of the working These countries also received preferential National Unitary Command (CNU), 256 ism, lxvii, 345, 346-47, 350, 358-60; and
reforms will be key challenges in the next few years. Colombia: A Country Study See state of
Carmen Elisa Florez Nieto's Las transformaciones sociodemogra.fi- 126
weapons by the end of 2005. Espartana (ex-Spanish Cormoran; 1
In
on the CalPERS restricted list of countries where funds can be Gaviria's escape from prison in 1992, again led to the declaration of power in late 2009 numerous civilians, public figures, and members
In the 2007 elections, CONGRESS OF The report recom- 335-36, 349
In addition to becoming a number of clear indications of improving conditions of life for the and technical incompatibilities prevented the nation from making Regard- H500M 2 each major party competed for their party's guaranteed share of Finance (now the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit) and the Minis- 1 76, 1 78, 222; growth of, 94-95; military role magnitude of the declines in fertility and mortality after 1966. Lleras Restrepo, Carlos, 49, 99 cent in its public spending, particularly in social spending. The Constituent Assembly was convened in 1991, partly because London: struction work is an attractive alternative, but a volatile one. African
A drawn-out series of accusations and denials concern- demographic changes will be integral elements of any strategy to since 2002, attributed principally to the sharp decrease in AUC vio-
sons occur in April and May and from September to December, as in General Eustorgio Salgar (PL) The APBS consists of the application of variable levies in Some place-names are derived 235,251,321,342-43,348, 360 funding of their campaigns and other high-level government offi- mainly because his campaign was based on hard-line war rhetoric. Moreover, the DCA Crisis in Historical Perspective, and also in Gonzalo Sanchez Gomez
Except for the Bogotazo, La Violencia was overwhelmingly rural. Although the guerrilla forces still operating in the
social, and cultural functions. over who would become the next occupant of Narino Palace preceded state of exception (estado de exception), 218, lxvi, lxxxvi, 49, 50, 54, 56, 96, 216, 225, 1872-74 As a measurement of volume, a barrel is the equivalent of 42 In a press conference at the French Embassy in ies: Essays in the New Urban History. would not be so considered outside this region. 100 Days." In late 1999, the government and the Central Bank undertook a ordained clergy may not be quite sure whether to accept as harmless or try estimates, the number is 3 million, still the second highest popula- Intermediation spreads therefore remained at a high level. world-market share of only 2 percent in 2006. several with a daily circulation of more than 50,000 copies. The hacienda own-
The Transporte_en_cifras_2004.pdf. struck down by a Conservative conspiracy.
Ediciones Antropos, 2003. The many terms for color still being used reflect the persistence of elects the judges of the Constitutional Court. Federation of Municipalities (Fedemunicipios), 69 mayors were
than the 14 percent increase reported for 2007. was to inflation rather than to interest rates. territory, called an encomienda (g.v. indicators of instability that contributed to Colombia's borderline tioned in Medellin; the 11th Brigade, which covers Carepa, Chigirodo, law in 1821, but total emancipation was enacted only in 1851, The minister's dismissal of the FARC's guerrilla capabilities social resentment of the middle and working classes against the become a nonpartisan and permanent policy, delivering long-lasting Washington, DC: FSP Frente Social y Politico (Social and Political Front) This adjusted figure took into account geographical coverage omis- greater autonomy to the Military Forces and loosening civilian con- internal conflict, and more than 235,000 people from 29 of the coun- in exchange for supporting the legislation that approved the constitu- uneven income distributions in Latin America and the world. anticommunist agenda framed their strategy of using violence and 4th ed. Economic Structure and Sectoral Policies tactics of repression, which included systematic execution of most all ties to Spain. Senatorial elections, which are based on a single nationwide elec- The Pacific lowlands consist of a narrow, sparsely populated, National Planning Department (DNP), the National Administrative In the late 1960s, for example, Colombian women living
The latter projects its maritime boundary on the basis of by members of foreign militaries. inequalities, and in the closing decades of the twentieth century, black Tensions between Colombia and Ecuador revolve mainly around Multinational Force and Observers (MFO), an independent interna- de la Realidad Colombiana / Grupo Editorial Norma, 1999. groups. ing the nation's maritime waters, the evolution of the internal conflict Conflict in Colombia. (blanqueamiento) is a recurrent practice for social climbing (hier- in the country. In 1997 Betancourt waged a lonely and per- Ce-3 1 OR (multiengine training) 2 158; petrochemical, 158-59; policy, 146, Citizens directly elect gover- Between 1989 and 1992, Colombia went through an unprece- entities and the mortgage owners. Italy, and Israel. Civil Code, 106, 107 27 Development (OECD), 112 legislative proposals. Golfo de Coquibacoa, 69 ensure dedicated resources of troops and naval and air assets in all nizations operating in Colombia has expanded exponentially since However, the would be the first to receive U.S. upgrading investment, totaling clergy who trace their inspiration to Vatican Council II (1965), when sonable levels of representation in the Congress. environmental considerations, 78-82, 136-37, Galindo, adviser, Ministry of Finance, Colombia. Its next target was New Granada. In population expansion and the growth of cities.
state of Colombian-European relations.
United States-Colombia Security Cooperation and Plan The earliest antinarcotics efforts in Colombia in the 1970s live births in 1970 to 19.5 in 2008, the under-five mortality rate totaled US$25.3 billion in 2009. point in the early 1990s in Colombia's management of its national oil, 157; and sugar, 156-57 Violence in Colombia, 1990-2000: Waging War and Negotiating These were only the most important guerrilla forces, but San Andres, 172, 299 The Roman Catholic Church is the single most important force it hinders agreement. subsequent national humiliation led Colombian policy makers to See Mosquera Garcia, Elda Neyis Foreign multinational institutions included armed forces to total 267,231: army, 43,013 career active-duty plus in other segments of the labor market. center-left Liberal Party is still the largest party in Congress but is cur- Famig Fundacion de Atencion al Migrante (Migrants' Care Foundation) bill without further objections. 9th ed. United States. between the interest charged by banks for loans they made and the
2. Both the FARC and the paramilitaries increased their tries, reluctance to face the issue is due in part to cultural factors, partial to the Liberal Party. Specific Command of San Andres and Provi- trafficking networks. Turbay Ayala, Julio Cesar, 51, 93, 329, 340 Vol.
Arab immigrants, 92-93 Organization (ORO); and Todelar Radio. nied Bueno and his girlfriend on the flight from Colombia to France. Boca Grande, 300 Colombia differed from much of Latin America. But the other key aspect of the National lation of the economy and eliminated the previous constitutional Colombia's textile industry represented 9 percent of output and not include naval aviation, 146, and marines, 14,000. Both regu- tion grew 2.1 percent.
Bogota: Editorial Planeta Co- Nepal and Bhutan strategies became blurred, as it became evident that both the guer- may be elected to regional or local office and may also win seats in
sewerage systems is now almost universal, with private enterprise tutional Court on January 13, 2010, his opinion favoring the congres- estudio internacional comparativo sobre lenguaje, matemdtica y fac- 259-60, 277, 280, 328, 332, 341, 349-50, Secondly, the motion of censure, although in principle guaranteeing behind Brazil and Vietnam. poppy production area fell to 1,023 hectares; and the number of ille- With a total of 3,208 kilometers of coastline, it is the only In response to the financial crisis, the government took prompt and
Colombia's Nobel Prize-winning novelist, Gabriel Garcia 115 and well-qualified professors, it soon consolidated a reputa- In public primary education, there have been some promising in the House of Representatives (Camara de Representantes): two Government opposition to the The United States considers them outright terrorists DC 20402-00001 defense, 290; and foreign relations, 267,
to 2,000 conscripts.
David L. Osborne 1858-61 one of their delegates was named to head a key committee. state security agents or employers' hit squads do not necessarily Ports: Seaports handle around 80 percent of the country's interna- Civilization and Violence: Regimes of Representation in APEC. ture, dead or alive, key figures of the Medellin Cartel. Conservative Hegemony northern South America by forces moving back and forth without Pasto, 7, 13, 16, 18 distribution remained highly unequal. The Pension Conundrum but again with a major strain of folk religion, including elements Nations (UN), and U.S. Department of State. Along with the Accord- The Function of the Urban Informal Sector in of the AUC and the FARC have been killed, captured, or have demo-
Despite many efforts, reductions in production areas have been nonrenewable term of four years.
ordering reparations for victims of human rights abuses or violations ingly vocal in this archipelagic department. commanders by providing weapons from Venezuela's military stock- Orinoco river, 71, 173; basin, 17, 76, 77 193 CNC Consejo Nacional Campesino (National Campesino Council) Despite the lower levels of violence associated with the internal balance, unfavorable, and unemployment in the late 1990s reached a The Legitimation of Violence. (For further information and complete citations, see Bibliography.) another Venezuelan general at the meeting offers Venezuela's port of allowed to program and produce television materials, while the state See Briceno Suarez, Jorge insurance for adverse events such as those generated by the internal to Administrators of the Subsidized Regime (ARS), which like the Putumayo Department, 190, 344-45 Bogota: Colciencia / CIDER / Tercer Mundo Edi- 298 15 victims of political kidnappings, including Ingrid Betancourt and ans in, 96, 98, 353; relations with, lxxix, Foster, Vivien. Arco Iris), Ixxxv-lxxxvi, 226, 253 Castro, Fidel, 359 lxxxvii Magdalena and the Cauca; it is the second most important region in on income generated by the growth of flowers. in Colombia. struggles during La Violencia, various groups evolved into more bians are identified by their regional origins, within which are gades, with regional headquarters in Barranquilla (the 2d), Medellfn tax havens in the Caribbean, such as the British Virgin Islands and the The National Front, 1958-78 dents go abroad for at least part of their training. INSPECTOR GENERAL the Caribbean (ECLAC), 100 France, Germany, and the United Kingdom combined. 232-33; congressional, lxxxvii, 231; fraud Social Union (USO), which represents workers in the oil industry, office in 2002.
more than half thereafter, they have recovered at rates of more than relations between the executive and judiciary became increasingly and the military attributed it to a FARC faction called the Manuel Courtesy Colombian presidential leadership found itself attacked on another front by a dissident Lib- The 1990s also saw the start of opium-poppy cultivation, with a Medellin: Editorial Colina, 1988. police was diluted as local forces were organized and directed by estado de emergencia ecoldgica. bian government has pacified a few of the illegal armed groups: the In order to gain access to higher education, for exam- doctorate in law and political science in Medellfn. and proclaims that religious education is not a requirement in public 1 895 Another unsuccessful Liberal uprising. administrations, they were dismantled during the Pastrana government. The high levels of insecurity are compounded by the lack of a Pana-
Population: Colombia is the third most populous country in Latin ricio Garcia Villegas. the mid-twentieth century is even more impressive than that of pri- petitions for redress are presented, the task of investigating and act- themselves for military service of 12-24 months; those who can afford peace negotiations with, lvi, 332, 340-42 upon the project was sent to the Constitutional Court for review. enough money to sustain a middle-class lifestyle. ham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1990. Bolivar has not only Colombia's sec- which 46.9 percent were considered in good condition, 33.2 percent in some determined Uribistas began calling for the postponement of the Germany vehicles. obstacles is that the paramilitaries are responsible for approximately The alliance was strictly opportunistic, as Lopez and the Liberal high Assistance (Rio Treaty), which stipulates collective defense in the and Ecuador. 181 CNE Consejo Nacional Electoral (National Electoral Council) gence Unit (EIU) on the "livability" of cities in 2009 is to be believed. major future challenge.
Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976. 1 794 Antonio Narino is arrested and convicted of sedition for having printed a Spanish Bogota: Grupo Editorial manufacturing sectors were down sharply in 2008, as were traditional United Provinces of New Granada, 16, 22, 285 "Private Capital roles, 104-5; size and structure, 100, 103-5, In addition, movement beyond the borders became Major Air Force Equipment, 2009 8,000 was a clear indication that the measures adopted by the 1991 The government for its part has try of Labor and Social Security and the Ministry of Health merged inequality, social injustice, population displacement, and weak state the oldest known and most widely accepted sites of early human ages. proud of their lighter skins and (when possible) distinguished pedi- Among the most desperate are the millions of desplazados. in the economy as a whole. judges, lvi, 328; against labor unions, 256, Antioquia Department, lxv, 107, 176, 190, 358; which were already large metropolitan areas of several hundred agreements, such as the Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement of As of October 2008, Colombia had 164,257 kilometers of roads, of Reyes Posada, Alejandro. 300 in Bogota and seized a letter from Ingrid Betancourt to her mother
Conpes Consejo Nacional de Politica Economica y Social (National Council for Economic The insurgent movement expanded into much of the national terri- 104 Spain discouraged the admission of non-Spaniards Itself Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. population. illiteracy rate of more than 80 percent was an obstacle to almost any adoxical about-face, Colombian drug traffickers and paramilitary developed tropical hinterland have helped spread not just malaria but nium AD, a gold pendant discovered in Quimbaya territory, bia's social and economic development. criminal investigation, police intelligence, antinarcotics, protection dential election, appear to have any adverse impact on Colombia's MD-500MD Defender 1
tas and other payments made by users as well as an increase in public program of the early 1990s. and a passive attitude to paramilitarism. tinuous updating of the reach of the pension system to better reflect pension benefits. lxxiv prevailed, despite the continuing violence. occasions of the church calendar, they are not always faithful in their reli- 132 The DCA with Colombia will offset for the United States the expi- Mockus Sivickas, twice mayor of Bogota (1992-96 and 1996-2000), During 110 bian business groups also were involved in their country's talks con- history is surveyed by William Paul McGreevey's An Economic His- events.
Amazonas 32 The Colpatria Tower, 257 since 1953, and in 1991 Rafael Pardo Rueda became minister of ities, also increased in strength through the unification of their dispa-
social programs was a promising development. Opposition parties, income received by cultivators is much less than that accruing to ished. Colombia's long-running dispute with Venezuela is over substan- aftermath of the War of the Thousand Days to intervene. By the end of 2007, Colombia had
Itself. of the 1990s was a period of diminished and more volatile growth, Immigration 92 Violence in Colombia, 1990-2000: Waging War and Negotiating The twin developments of drug trafficking and paramilitarism fur- region. holding a record in Latin America for longevity, was seen as part of Boyaca 1 2 cedures of oral arguments and trials open to the public. population. marily in response to the threats posed by the insurgency and illicit medieval traditions remained strong. ing a coalition government, and at the upper levels this approach at
In 2005 Colombia had only 1.1 physicians per The Economy
FAC (see table 8, Appendix). support of Conservatives. Caguan, Caqueta, Guaviare, and Guayabero; the seizure of 153 tons The coup succeeded in overthrowing Lopez's successor,
Bolivar then yielded to demands try's administration was tidied up by adoption of the first frankly "Agricultura, cultivos ilicitos y medio ambiente en Colom- where in South America (Chile and Ecuador). "entrusted" to a Spanish colonist to protect them and convert them to
Colombia. favored an opening to foreign trade. Bangladesh Sentinel Country Risk Assessments. back to Colombia a few months later. Government and Politics lessness and government paralysis in Colombia fed popular support Bogota: Grupo Editorial Norma, 1995. 95 wage payments to about 43 percent of the basic wage. However, student groups warned that if the reforms won approval in a proposed referendum, who controlled the only university-level institutions and were active It had seemed inevitable to many Colombians that President Uribe
lviii have influenced Colombian society throughout its history. Cincuenta anos de desarrollo economico colombiano. 00810. The text According to the Human Development Report 2007/ The groups engage in a range of criminal activities, including drug The EAE Neither faction was necessarily averse to economic liberal- People in the poorest regions and social strata suffer most from sought to improve their professionalism and compliance with interna- vate firms even before the existence, since 1994, of the SSPD. United States of New Granada, 1861-63 1847 The government attempts to manipulate information and to presidential candidate Luis Carlos Galan a few feet away from Betan- 4
Ownership of news During the twentieth century, specifically during La Violencia and
completed on April 1 8, 2006. In that year, the ing the scandal over Samper's presidential campaign. dence that the highlands of Colombia were occupied by significant 1870-72 one of the most productive for sugar in the world. No member may serve for more than three terms. 1 (February 2006): 90-93. Vicepresidencia de la Republica. support by Chavez for the FARC than previously known. tic in his defense. soldiers, retaking control over strategic corridors from the guerrillas, centralized government and dilutes individual rights; United States of Colombia International reports have shown that Colombia is 1990s, and monopolies on the Atlantic coast and in the eastern plains organizations, a move that aligned the country with Washington's A soldier stands guard while Colombia. scripts, for a total of 226,352; navy, 23,515 plus 7,214 conscripts, for a Agriculture In late November 2002, tive and increased the presidential term (even if not to life) but was lit- placement, 95; and drug trade, lviii, 55, 329; Americans. describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national bre Editores, 2001. when mothers were finally placed on the same footing as fathers in tional Court ruled that workers in the education, health, telephone, The total number of representatives is fixed according to the teenth and early twentieth centuries. respuestas a una nueva amenaza insurgente."
Unit's annual Country Profile: Colombia is a good source for updated elementary or high-school studies; the whereabouts of roughly 17,200 into its colonies. Violence in Colombia: The Contemporary Crisis in Historical Per- vesting it instead in the Attorney General's Office; and alternative urbanization, 47, 88, 94-95, 162; loss of com- 97 (Bogota) 77, no. servatives themselves were increasingly disheartened. structure, and Economic Growth." estado de conmocion interior. didate to win the presidency in the first round of elections has been mental and municipal comptrollers is monitored by the auditor gen-
coast. bia also will need to increase its human capital significantly. In 2007 Colombia had an abundance of families that belonged to fifth, respectively, in the tally of votes. levels. Public Companies (EPM). tation of being more conservative, politically and theologically, than Palo Negro in Bucaramanga, Simon Bolivar in Santa Marta, Ernesto classic history of ideas; and Jose Antonio Ocampo's Colombia y la ondary education functioned as a bottleneck that severely limited taries and guerrillas struggled for control of the department's key Santa Fe, deposing the Spanish viceroy. of eight employees of the Palace of Justice cafeteria, three female visi- beginning to change with such improvements as the introduction of matic options to win Betancourt's release, and Chirac again called for is no conscientious-objector status. sioner for Human Rights for improving human rights standards in faction with President Chavez's refusal to abide by the previously relatively well-off Jewish community for kidnappings for ransom. Vir- de la Nation), lx, lxiii-lxiv, lxxxii, 218, 233, Although it gradually fell to an estimated 4.5 percent in 2006, achieved some success at penetrating national political institutions, as such as oil and coal. judiciary, studying and approving the budgetary and treasury general the Casa del Marques de San Jorge, Bogota
general from the government's pool of candidates. fication of the cease-fire, demobilization and disarmament, and the attorney general (fiscal), lxiii, lxxv, lxxxii-lxxxv, ans were aged 14 years or younger; 65.1 percent were in the 15-64 no. The country's broken topog- Business Associations Revista de la CEPAL (Santiago, Chile) 69 (December Environment, Housing, and Territorial Development. 158 Central School of Judicial Police in its 2002-6 Development Plan, as dad Nacional de Colombia, Instituto de Estudios Politicos y Relaciones According to local authorities, both of Revista Colombia Inter- The constitution established that the territorial entities' share of by the president to any office in the executive branch or to any other spe- tion is that its peripheral, subordinate status allows marginal leeway consumption has decreased by at least 1 3 cubic meters a month per tially, were slightly more distinguished socially than their adversar- The phenomenon first first on the coast of Venezuela in April to mop up what remained of However, the bank reserved the right to inter- In UN General Assembly Colombian Platform for Human Rights, More- and holy water," one critic observed he came close to winning a Plan LASO (Latin American Security Opera- Force, the Pacific Naval Force, the Southern Naval Force, the Coast who have been extradited to the United States and tried in U.S. courts Esguerra Cubides Air Base in Tres Esquinas, Caqueta, and operates patriarchal, and patrilineal.
a third of their assets. In some Latin American coun- Las Papas, 74 1942-45) for his reformist political agenda. Ecuador 2). which divides the eastern llanos from the Amazonian jungle. number of criollos and mestizos. At an intermediate level, the colony was divided into prov- after the Spanish had overcome an initial British settlement, is
Santander 1 1 some other body. Another the cities, the act of shedding or changing spouses no longer drew observers considered the paramilitaries to be responsible for 50 per- mands (marine infantry, coast guard, naval aviation, and the Specific
Drug Eradication Act. constitution were inadequate to prevent the illegal funding of elec- Bogota: Taurus, 2005.
Colombia. tions. who reside within established reserves. the way to the Caribbean lowlands, where the Cauca finally flows Colombia's sovereignty, territory, and constitutional order. Imprisoned insurgents are incarcerated with regular criminal detainees
Coyuntura Because of its high cost, the availability of natural Electricity 16 associations are members. Cesar, Cordoba, Cundinamarca, Huila, Magdalena, Meta, Narino, 72, 76, 77, 91; growth, 49, 90-91, 98; insular, Planning efforts to remedy this missing link in the Pan-Amer- paramilitary forces in some areas developed an unacknowledged
1918-21 tions as part of a larger economic liberalization strategy. EFIM Escuela de Formation de Infanteria de Marina (Marine Infantry Training School) links to paramilitaries, lxiii; and violence, lvi the Commercial Arms Control Department, and the five joint com-
Country Profile 2007: Colombia. tions drew near. Ocampo, Jose Antonio. twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, in line with developments
counterguerrilla units are special infantry battalions trained to oper- underemployment affected an estimated 35 percent of the working These countries also received preferential National Unitary Command (CNU), 256 ism, lxvii, 345, 346-47, 350, 358-60; and
reforms will be key challenges in the next few years. Colombia: A Country Study See state of
Carmen Elisa Florez Nieto's Las transformaciones sociodemogra.fi- 126
weapons by the end of 2005. Espartana (ex-Spanish Cormoran; 1
In
on the CalPERS restricted list of countries where funds can be Gaviria's escape from prison in 1992, again led to the declaration of power in late 2009 numerous civilians, public figures, and members
In the 2007 elections, CONGRESS OF The report recom- 335-36, 349
In addition to becoming a number of clear indications of improving conditions of life for the and technical incompatibilities prevented the nation from making Regard- H500M 2 each major party competed for their party's guaranteed share of Finance (now the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit) and the Minis- 1 76, 1 78, 222; growth of, 94-95; military role magnitude of the declines in fertility and mortality after 1966. Lleras Restrepo, Carlos, 49, 99 cent in its public spending, particularly in social spending. The Constituent Assembly was convened in 1991, partly because London: struction work is an attractive alternative, but a volatile one. African
A drawn-out series of accusations and denials concern- demographic changes will be integral elements of any strategy to since 2002, attributed principally to the sharp decrease in AUC vio-
sons occur in April and May and from September to December, as in General Eustorgio Salgar (PL) The APBS consists of the application of variable levies in Some place-names are derived 235,251,321,342-43,348, 360 funding of their campaigns and other high-level government offi- mainly because his campaign was based on hard-line war rhetoric. Moreover, the DCA Crisis in Historical Perspective, and also in Gonzalo Sanchez Gomez
Except for the Bogotazo, La Violencia was overwhelmingly rural. Although the guerrilla forces still operating in the
social, and cultural functions. over who would become the next occupant of Narino Palace preceded state of exception (estado de exception), 218, lxvi, lxxxvi, 49, 50, 54, 56, 96, 216, 225, 1872-74 As a measurement of volume, a barrel is the equivalent of 42 In a press conference at the French Embassy in ies: Essays in the New Urban History. would not be so considered outside this region. 100 Days." In late 1999, the government and the Central Bank undertook a ordained clergy may not be quite sure whether to accept as harmless or try estimates, the number is 3 million, still the second highest popula- Intermediation spreads therefore remained at a high level. world-market share of only 2 percent in 2006. several with a daily circulation of more than 50,000 copies. The hacienda own-
The Transporte_en_cifras_2004.pdf. struck down by a Conservative conspiracy.
Ediciones Antropos, 2003. The many terms for color still being used reflect the persistence of elects the judges of the Constitutional Court. Federation of Municipalities (Fedemunicipios), 69 mayors were
than the 14 percent increase reported for 2007. was to inflation rather than to interest rates. territory, called an encomienda (g.v. indicators of instability that contributed to Colombia's borderline tioned in Medellin; the 11th Brigade, which covers Carepa, Chigirodo, law in 1821, but total emancipation was enacted only in 1851, The minister's dismissal of the FARC's guerrilla capabilities social resentment of the middle and working classes against the become a nonpartisan and permanent policy, delivering long-lasting Washington, DC: FSP Frente Social y Politico (Social and Political Front) This adjusted figure took into account geographical coverage omis- greater autonomy to the Military Forces and loosening civilian con- internal conflict, and more than 235,000 people from 29 of the coun- in exchange for supporting the legislation that approved the constitu- uneven income distributions in Latin America and the world. anticommunist agenda framed their strategy of using violence and 4th ed. Economic Structure and Sectoral Policies tactics of repression, which included systematic execution of most all ties to Spain. Senatorial elections, which are based on a single nationwide elec- The Pacific lowlands consist of a narrow, sparsely populated, National Planning Department (DNP), the National Administrative In the late 1960s, for example, Colombian women living
The latter projects its maritime boundary on the basis of by members of foreign militaries. inequalities, and in the closing decades of the twentieth century, black Tensions between Colombia and Ecuador revolve mainly around Multinational Force and Observers (MFO), an independent interna- de la Realidad Colombiana / Grupo Editorial Norma, 1999. groups. ing the nation's maritime waters, the evolution of the internal conflict Conflict in Colombia. (blanqueamiento) is a recurrent practice for social climbing (hier- in the country. In 1997 Betancourt waged a lonely and per- Ce-3 1 OR (multiengine training) 2 158; petrochemical, 158-59; policy, 146, Citizens directly elect gover- Between 1989 and 1992, Colombia went through an unprece- entities and the mortgage owners. Italy, and Israel. Civil Code, 106, 107 27 Development (OECD), 112 legislative proposals. Golfo de Coquibacoa, 69 ensure dedicated resources of troops and naval and air assets in all nizations operating in Colombia has expanded exponentially since However, the would be the first to receive U.S. upgrading investment, totaling clergy who trace their inspiration to Vatican Council II (1965), when sonable levels of representation in the Congress. environmental considerations, 78-82, 136-37, Galindo, adviser, Ministry of Finance, Colombia. Its next target was New Granada. In population expansion and the growth of cities.
state of Colombian-European relations.
United States-Colombia Security Cooperation and Plan The earliest antinarcotics efforts in Colombia in the 1970s live births in 1970 to 19.5 in 2008, the under-five mortality rate totaled US$25.3 billion in 2009. point in the early 1990s in Colombia's management of its national oil, 157; and sugar, 156-57 Violence in Colombia, 1990-2000: Waging War and Negotiating These were only the most important guerrilla forces, but San Andres, 172, 299 The Roman Catholic Church is the single most important force it hinders agreement. subsequent national humiliation led Colombian policy makers to See Mosquera Garcia, Elda Neyis Foreign multinational institutions included armed forces to total 267,231: army, 43,013 career active-duty plus in other segments of the labor market. center-left Liberal Party is still the largest party in Congress but is cur- Famig Fundacion de Atencion al Migrante (Migrants' Care Foundation) bill without further objections. 9th ed. United States. between the interest charged by banks for loans they made and the
2. Both the FARC and the paramilitaries increased their tries, reluctance to face the issue is due in part to cultural factors, partial to the Liberal Party. Specific Command of San Andres and Provi- trafficking networks. Turbay Ayala, Julio Cesar, 51, 93, 329, 340 Vol.
Arab immigrants, 92-93 Organization (ORO); and Todelar Radio. nied Bueno and his girlfriend on the flight from Colombia to France. Boca Grande, 300 Colombia differed from much of Latin America. But the other key aspect of the National lation of the economy and eliminated the previous constitutional Colombia's textile industry represented 9 percent of output and not include naval aviation, 146, and marines, 14,000. Both regu- tion grew 2.1 percent.
Bogota: Editorial Planeta Co- Nepal and Bhutan strategies became blurred, as it became evident that both the guer- may be elected to regional or local office and may also win seats in
sewerage systems is now almost universal, with private enterprise tutional Court on January 13, 2010, his opinion favoring the congres- estudio internacional comparativo sobre lenguaje, matemdtica y fac- 259-60, 277, 280, 328, 332, 341, 349-50, Secondly, the motion of censure, although in principle guaranteeing behind Brazil and Vietnam. poppy production area fell to 1,023 hectares; and the number of ille- With a total of 3,208 kilometers of coastline, it is the only In response to the financial crisis, the government took prompt and
Colombia's Nobel Prize-winning novelist, Gabriel Garcia 115 and well-qualified professors, it soon consolidated a reputa- In public primary education, there have been some promising in the House of Representatives (Camara de Representantes): two Government opposition to the The United States considers them outright terrorists DC 20402-00001 defense, 290; and foreign relations, 267,
to 2,000 conscripts.
David L. Osborne 1858-61 one of their delegates was named to head a key committee. state security agents or employers' hit squads do not necessarily Ports: Seaports handle around 80 percent of the country's interna- Civilization and Violence: Regimes of Representation in APEC. ture, dead or alive, key figures of the Medellin Cartel. Conservative Hegemony northern South America by forces moving back and forth without Pasto, 7, 13, 16, 18 distribution remained highly unequal. The Pension Conundrum but again with a major strain of folk religion, including elements Nations (UN), and U.S. Department of State. Along with the Accord- The Function of the Urban Informal Sector in of the AUC and the FARC have been killed, captured, or have demo-
Despite many efforts, reductions in production areas have been nonrenewable term of four years.
ordering reparations for victims of human rights abuses or violations ingly vocal in this archipelagic department. commanders by providing weapons from Venezuela's military stock- Orinoco river, 71, 173; basin, 17, 76, 77 193 CNC Consejo Nacional Campesino (National Campesino Council) Despite the lower levels of violence associated with the internal balance, unfavorable, and unemployment in the late 1990s reached a The Legitimation of Violence. (For further information and complete citations, see Bibliography.) another Venezuelan general at the meeting offers Venezuela's port of allowed to program and produce television materials, while the state See Briceno Suarez, Jorge insurance for adverse events such as those generated by the internal to Administrators of the Subsidized Regime (ARS), which like the Putumayo Department, 190, 344-45 Bogota: Colciencia / CIDER / Tercer Mundo Edi- 298 15 victims of political kidnappings, including Ingrid Betancourt and ans in, 96, 98, 353; relations with, lxxix, Foster, Vivien. Arco Iris), Ixxxv-lxxxvi, 226, 253 Castro, Fidel, 359 lxxxvii Magdalena and the Cauca; it is the second most important region in on income generated by the growth of flowers. in Colombia. struggles during La Violencia, various groups evolved into more bians are identified by their regional origins, within which are gades, with regional headquarters in Barranquilla (the 2d), Medellfn tax havens in the Caribbean, such as the British Virgin Islands and the The National Front, 1958-78 dents go abroad for at least part of their training. INSPECTOR GENERAL the Caribbean (ECLAC), 100 France, Germany, and the United Kingdom combined. 232-33; congressional, lxxxvii, 231; fraud Social Union (USO), which represents workers in the oil industry, office in 2002.
more than half thereafter, they have recovered at rates of more than relations between the executive and judiciary became increasingly and the military attributed it to a FARC faction called the Manuel Courtesy Colombian presidential leadership found itself attacked on another front by a dissident Lib- The 1990s also saw the start of opium-poppy cultivation, with a Medellin: Editorial Colina, 1988. police was diluted as local forces were organized and directed by estado de emergencia ecoldgica. bian government has pacified a few of the illegal armed groups: the In order to gain access to higher education, for exam- doctorate in law and political science in Medellfn. and proclaims that religious education is not a requirement in public 1 895 Another unsuccessful Liberal uprising. administrations, they were dismantled during the Pastrana government. The high levels of insecurity are compounded by the lack of a Pana-
Population: Colombia is the third most populous country in Latin ricio Garcia Villegas. the mid-twentieth century is even more impressive than that of pri- petitions for redress are presented, the task of investigating and act- themselves for military service of 12-24 months; those who can afford peace negotiations with, lvi, 332, 340-42 upon the project was sent to the Constitutional Court for review. enough money to sustain a middle-class lifestyle. ham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1990. Bolivar has not only Colombia's sec- which 46.9 percent were considered in good condition, 33.2 percent in some determined Uribistas began calling for the postponement of the Germany vehicles. obstacles is that the paramilitaries are responsible for approximately The alliance was strictly opportunistic, as Lopez and the Liberal high Assistance (Rio Treaty), which stipulates collective defense in the and Ecuador. 181 CNE Consejo Nacional Electoral (National Electoral Council) gence Unit (EIU) on the "livability" of cities in 2009 is to be believed. major future challenge.
Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976. 1 794 Antonio Narino is arrested and convicted of sedition for having printed a Spanish Bogota: Grupo Editorial manufacturing sectors were down sharply in 2008, as were traditional United Provinces of New Granada, 16, 22, 285 "Private Capital roles, 104-5; size and structure, 100, 103-5, In addition, movement beyond the borders became Major Air Force Equipment, 2009 8,000 was a clear indication that the measures adopted by the 1991 The government for its part has try of Labor and Social Security and the Ministry of Health merged inequality, social injustice, population displacement, and weak state the oldest known and most widely accepted sites of early human ages. proud of their lighter skins and (when possible) distinguished pedi- Among the most desperate are the millions of desplazados. in the economy as a whole. judges, lvi, 328; against labor unions, 256, Antioquia Department, lxv, 107, 176, 190, 358; which were already large metropolitan areas of several hundred agreements, such as the Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement of As of October 2008, Colombia had 164,257 kilometers of roads, of Reyes Posada, Alejandro. 300 in Bogota and seized a letter from Ingrid Betancourt to her mother
Conpes Consejo Nacional de Politica Economica y Social (National Council for Economic The insurgent movement expanded into much of the national terri- 104 Spain discouraged the admission of non-Spaniards Itself Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. population. illiteracy rate of more than 80 percent was an obstacle to almost any adoxical about-face, Colombian drug traffickers and paramilitary developed tropical hinterland have helped spread not just malaria but nium AD, a gold pendant discovered in Quimbaya territory, bia's social and economic development. criminal investigation, police intelligence, antinarcotics, protection dential election, appear to have any adverse impact on Colombia's MD-500MD Defender 1
tas and other payments made by users as well as an increase in public program of the early 1990s. and a passive attitude to paramilitarism. tinuous updating of the reach of the pension system to better reflect pension benefits. lxxiv prevailed, despite the continuing violence. occasions of the church calendar, they are not always faithful in their reli- 132 The DCA with Colombia will offset for the United States the expi- Mockus Sivickas, twice mayor of Bogota (1992-96 and 1996-2000), During 110 bian business groups also were involved in their country's talks con- history is surveyed by William Paul McGreevey's An Economic His- events.
Amazonas 32 The Colpatria Tower, 257 since 1953, and in 1991 Rafael Pardo Rueda became minister of ities, also increased in strength through the unification of their dispa-
social programs was a promising development. Opposition parties, income received by cultivators is much less than that accruing to ished. Colombia's long-running dispute with Venezuela is over substan- aftermath of the War of the Thousand Days to intervene. By the end of 2007, Colombia had
Itself. of the 1990s was a period of diminished and more volatile growth, Immigration 92 Violence in Colombia, 1990-2000: Waging War and Negotiating The twin developments of drug trafficking and paramilitarism fur- region. holding a record in Latin America for longevity, was seen as part of Boyaca 1 2 cedures of oral arguments and trials open to the public. population. marily in response to the threats posed by the insurgency and illicit medieval traditions remained strong. ing a coalition government, and at the upper levels this approach at
In 2005 Colombia had only 1.1 physicians per The Economy
FAC (see table 8, Appendix). support of Conservatives. Caguan, Caqueta, Guaviare, and Guayabero; the seizure of 153 tons The coup succeeded in overthrowing Lopez's successor,
Bolivar then yielded to demands try's administration was tidied up by adoption of the first frankly "Agricultura, cultivos ilicitos y medio ambiente en Colom- where in South America (Chile and Ecuador). "entrusted" to a Spanish colonist to protect them and convert them to
Colombia. favored an opening to foreign trade. Bangladesh Sentinel Country Risk Assessments. back to Colombia a few months later. Government and Politics lessness and government paralysis in Colombia fed popular support Bogota: Grupo Editorial Norma, 1995. 95 wage payments to about 43 percent of the basic wage. However, student groups warned that if the reforms won approval in a proposed referendum, who controlled the only university-level institutions and were active It had seemed inevitable to many Colombians that President Uribe
lviii have influenced Colombian society throughout its history. Cincuenta anos de desarrollo economico colombiano. 00810. The text According to the Human Development Report 2007/ The groups engage in a range of criminal activities, including drug The EAE Neither faction was necessarily averse to economic liberal- People in the poorest regions and social strata suffer most from sought to improve their professionalism and compliance with interna- vate firms even before the existence, since 1994, of the SSPD. United States of New Granada, 1861-63 1847 The government attempts to manipulate information and to presidential candidate Luis Carlos Galan a few feet away from Betan- 4
Ownership of news During the twentieth century, specifically during La Violencia and
completed on April 1 8, 2006. In that year, the ing the scandal over Samper's presidential campaign. dence that the highlands of Colombia were occupied by significant 1870-72 one of the most productive for sugar in the world. No member may serve for more than three terms. 1 (February 2006): 90-93. Vicepresidencia de la Republica. support by Chavez for the FARC than previously known. tic in his defense. soldiers, retaking control over strategic corridors from the guerrillas, centralized government and dilutes individual rights; United States of Colombia International reports have shown that Colombia is 1990s, and monopolies on the Atlantic coast and in the eastern plains organizations, a move that aligned the country with Washington's A soldier stands guard while Colombia. scripts, for a total of 226,352; navy, 23,515 plus 7,214 conscripts, for a Agriculture In late November 2002, tive and increased the presidential term (even if not to life) but was lit- placement, 95; and drug trade, lviii, 55, 329; Americans. describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national bre Editores, 2001. when mothers were finally placed on the same footing as fathers in tional Court ruled that workers in the education, health, telephone, The total number of representatives is fixed according to the teenth and early twentieth centuries. respuestas a una nueva amenaza insurgente."
Unit's annual Country Profile: Colombia is a good source for updated elementary or high-school studies; the whereabouts of roughly 17,200 into its colonies. Violence in Colombia: The Contemporary Crisis in Historical Per- vesting it instead in the Attorney General's Office; and alternative urbanization, 47, 88, 94-95, 162; loss of com- 97 (Bogota) 77, no. servatives themselves were increasingly disheartened. structure, and Economic Growth." estado de conmocion interior. didate to win the presidency in the first round of elections has been mental and municipal comptrollers is monitored by the auditor gen-
coast. bia also will need to increase its human capital significantly. In 2007 Colombia had an abundance of families that belonged to fifth, respectively, in the tally of votes. levels. Public Companies (EPM). tation of being more conservative, politically and theologically, than Palo Negro in Bucaramanga, Simon Bolivar in Santa Marta, Ernesto classic history of ideas; and Jose Antonio Ocampo's Colombia y la ondary education functioned as a bottleneck that severely limited taries and guerrillas struggled for control of the department's key Santa Fe, deposing the Spanish viceroy. of eight employees of the Palace of Justice cafeteria, three female visi- beginning to change with such improvements as the introduction of matic options to win Betancourt's release, and Chirac again called for is no conscientious-objector status. sioner for Human Rights for improving human rights standards in faction with President Chavez's refusal to abide by the previously relatively well-off Jewish community for kidnappings for ransom. Vir- de la Nation), lx, lxiii-lxiv, lxxxii, 218, 233, Although it gradually fell to an estimated 4.5 percent in 2006, achieved some success at penetrating national political institutions, as such as oil and coal. judiciary, studying and approving the budgetary and treasury general the Casa del Marques de San Jorge, Bogota
general from the government's pool of candidates. fication of the cease-fire, demobilization and disarmament, and the attorney general (fiscal), lxiii, lxxv, lxxxii-lxxxv, ans were aged 14 years or younger; 65.1 percent were in the 15-64 no. The country's broken topog- Business Associations Revista de la CEPAL (Santiago, Chile) 69 (December Environment, Housing, and Territorial Development. 158 Central School of Judicial Police in its 2002-6 Development Plan, as dad Nacional de Colombia, Instituto de Estudios Politicos y Relaciones According to local authorities, both of Revista Colombia Inter- The constitution established that the territorial entities' share of by the president to any office in the executive branch or to any other spe- tion is that its peripheral, subordinate status allows marginal leeway consumption has decreased by at least 1 3 cubic meters a month per tially, were slightly more distinguished socially than their adversar- The phenomenon first first on the coast of Venezuela in April to mop up what remained of However, the bank reserved the right to inter- In UN General Assembly Colombian Platform for Human Rights, More- and holy water," one critic observed he came close to winning a Plan LASO (Latin American Security Opera- Force, the Pacific Naval Force, the Southern Naval Force, the Coast who have been extradited to the United States and tried in U.S. courts Esguerra Cubides Air Base in Tres Esquinas, Caqueta, and operates patriarchal, and patrilineal.
a third of their assets. In some Latin American coun- Las Papas, 74 1942-45) for his reformist political agenda. Ecuador 2). which divides the eastern llanos from the Amazonian jungle. number of criollos and mestizos. At an intermediate level, the colony was divided into prov- after the Spanish had overcome an initial British settlement, is
Santander 1 1 some other body. Another the cities, the act of shedding or changing spouses no longer drew observers considered the paramilitaries to be responsible for 50 per- mands (marine infantry, coast guard, naval aviation, and the Specific
Drug Eradication Act. constitution were inadequate to prevent the illegal funding of elec- Bogota: Taurus, 2005.
Colombia. tions. who reside within established reserves. the way to the Caribbean lowlands, where the Cauca finally flows Colombia's sovereignty, territory, and constitutional order. Imprisoned insurgents are incarcerated with regular criminal detainees